Rome in the Footsteps of an XVIIIth Century Traveller

VIII - The Flavian Dynasty

In this page:
The Four Emperors' Year
Vespasian (Tempio della Pace and Portico degli Dei Consenti)
Titus (Terme di Tito)
Domitian and the Consolidation of the Empire (Stadio and Odeon di Domiziano)
Domitian's end
Iconography

The Four Emperors' Year

The year 69 is known as the Four Emperors' Year: in January Servius Sulpicius Galba, who had just replaced Nero, decided to appoint as his successor Caius Piso Licinianus, a representative of the most aristocratic families, in order to gain the support of the Senate. He knew little of the Roman political environment as he did not realize that by doing this he displeased the praetorians, the imperial guard; in a matter of hours they rebelled and elected as emperor Marcus Salvius Otho, a senator who had promised them a rich reward. Galba and his appointed successor were both killed.

(left) Florence - Galleria degli Uffizi: Eastern Corridor; (right) bust of Emperor Otho. Cosimo I de' Medici inherited a collection of Roman busts which he increased with the aim of covering, if not all the Emperors, at least the first Twelve Caesars whose lives were narrated by Suetonius. Because busts of Otho were very difficult to find, the collection was completed with a modern bust which was based on coins portraying the Emperor

The new emperor was not accepted by Aulus Vitellius, proconsul of Germania inferior: for a while both Otho and Vitellius tried to reach an agreement, but eventually the legions supporting Vitellius crossed the Alps: after various skirmishes, the troops of Otho were defeated near Cremona, in Northern Italy; per se it was not a decisive battle, but Otho lost confidence and killed himself.
Vitellius reached Rome where he was acclaimed emperor. In order to last longer than his predecessors he decided to place many Germans who had helped him in defeating Otho at the head of the Praetorian Guard. He then devoted himself to a continuous banquet; we know he was fond of fish liver, pheasant brain and flamingo tongues (this shows up in a bust of him in the Torlonia Collection).
The Roman legions in the eastern part of the empire were not happy with what had happened in Rome after the death of Nero: they felt that first the praetorians, then the legions in Germany had gained too much power in the appointment of the emperor. At the beginning of July, the legions in Egypt, followed by those in Syria, Pannonia and Illyria chose a new emperor: Titus Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian), the commander of the legions in Palestine, where he was trying to quell a rebellion of the Jews.
The troops loyal to the emperor were defeated near Cremona by legions led by commanders who supported Vespasian. A few months earlier Otho had lost his life in that same location. Vitellius tried to reach an agreement with Vespasian and in December he agreed to abdicate; his praetorians however were not of the same advice and tried to stop the enemy immediately outside Rome; they eventually shut themselves in their barracks, where they were massacred by the enemy cavalry.
Vitellius tried in vain to save his life, even pretending to be a gate-keeper of the imperial palace.

Vespasian

Vespasian did not belong to a Roman family, but to a provincial one as he was born in Rieti in AD 9. He spent most of his career outside Italy in Thracia, in Crete, in Africa, in Germany until in 67 he was sent by Nero to Judaea (Palestine), where the Jews had rebelled against the Hellenization process which accompanied the expansion of the Roman empire in that country.
The many busts portraying him give the feeling that he was a practical man and this is in line with the accounts of many historians: a famous anecdote confirms this aspect of Vespasian's nature: he had built many public conveniences and had levied a tax on their use (actually on the urine which was sold to dyers). His son Titus told him that such a decision was not appropriate for an emperor: Vespasian took a coin and put it under Titus' nose saying: Pecunia non olet (money does not smell).

Portraits of the Flavian emperors: (left) Vespasian (Kunsthistorisches Museum - Vienna) from Salona - see him in other portraits in the Farnese Collection and at Museo Nazionale Romano; (centre) Titus (Arch. Museum - Naples) colossal head found in 1873 during the construction of Ministero delle Finanze - see another portrait of him at Chieti; (right) Domitian (Musei Capitolini) found in 1898 on the Esquiline Hill - see another portrait of him at Ephesus

Vespasian did not rush to Rome, but relied on his son Domitian for consolidating his power in the City and ensuring that none of the other commanders tried to replace him. Eventually in October 70 he made his arrival in Rome, while his son Titus continued the campaign in Judaea.
After the follies of Nero and the banquets of Vitellius, Rome needed a man like Vespasian to restore order in the empire, curtail the power of the praetorians, balance the fiscal burden among the provinces, define the role of the emperor, of the Senate and of the other institutions of the Roman republic.

Musei Vaticani: relief found in 1939 beneath Palazzo della Cancelleria and portraying (left to right) Minerva, Vespasian, a personification of Rome and a personification of the Senate

Vespasian appointed his son Titus as his partner in the imperial office to ensure a smooth succession process.
The Roman empire had almost lost its expansion capability; the events of the year 69 had proved that it risked collapsing and splitting into parts; Vespasian rather than engaging in new wars of conquest, devoted his attention to the critical areas of the empire: in Judaea, from where the example of a national/religious rebellion could spread to other nearby provinces, Titus in 70 seized and destroyed Jerusalem; in Britain the consul Gnaeus Julius Agricola started in 78 a series of campaigns against the tribes of Wales, Northern England and Scotland to stop their raids into Southern England; in Germany the Romans controlled the left bank of the Rhine and the right bank of the Danube; the two rivers formed a wedge (Agri Decumates corresponding broadly to the Black Forest) which weakened the overall defence of the Roman territories: Vespasian started a process of relocating there Gauls from the neighbouring Roman provinces to have an advanced line of defence.

(left) External wall of Tempio della Pace, which now is part of Monastero dei SS. Cosma e Damiano; (right) Portico degli Dei Consenti and the "Tabularium" behind it

Vespasian and his two sons Titus and Domitian continued the reconstruction of Rome initiated by Nero after the fire which had occurred in 65. On the site of a previous market Vespasian built a Templum Pacis to celebrate the restoration of peace throughout the empire. It consisted of a large quadrangular portico, on one side of which stood a small temple.
Two other temples were built by members of the Flavian dynasty at the foot of the Tabularium; in the following centuries they were both covered by landslides: only the tips of three columns of Tempio di Vespasiano stood out of the ground (you can see them in the image used as the background for this page).
The other temple, Portico degli Dei Consenti, was excavated and in part rebuilt in 1858: it was dedicated to six gods and six goddesses, the Roman counterparts of the Olympian gods, whose statues were placed in niches framed by columns. Consenti is a reference to their deciding together by consensus. An inscription on the entablature celebrates a restoration which occurred in 367, thus providing a piece of evidence of the persistence of the old religion in that period.

Colosseo: (left) detail of one the numbered entrances (this practice can be seen also at the Arena of Verona); (right) small pillars which were part of the machinery used for moving the "velarium"

Vespasian confiscated Nero's Domus Aurea and the surrounding gardens; the Romans had resented that Nero had reserved such a vast area in the very centre of Rome for his own pleasure; Vespasian was aware of these feelings and he decided to build a gigantic amphitheatre where the Romans could enjoy themselves on the site of the small lake which embellished Domus Aurea. The entrances of Anfiteatro Flavio (or Colosseo) were numbered to allow an easy access to the assigned seat; the audience was protected from direct sunlight by a velarium, a gigantic sail, controlled by skilled sailors of the Roman fleet by means of ropes knotted to iron rings placed on small pillars around the main building.

Arch dedicated to "Autokrator Kaisar Vespasian Sebastos" (Emperor Caesar Vespasian Augustus) at Xanthos

A little before the Christian era Xanthus seems to have revived under the auspices of Roman protection and to about the time of Vespasian AD 80 I attribute many of its most important buildings the materials of the ruins of which are still found in abundance.
Charles Fellows - Journal Written during an Excursion in Asia Minor in 1838
Vespasian died of natural causes in June 79 leaving the empire and the city of Rome in much better shape than they were when he took office. A few months later the Senate decreed his apotheosis (deification). He was always regarded by posterity as one of the wisest Roman emperors and inscriptions celebrating him as well as monuments built during his rule can be found in almost all the provinces of the Roman Empire.

Titus

Titus had just become the new emperor when a disastrous eruption of Mount Vesuvius hit the rich towns at its foot: Pompeii was entirely covered by the ashes thrown out by the volcano, while Herculaneum disappeared under a stream of lava and mud. He took immediate action to help the survivors and because of this and of his similar behaviour during a pestilence which hit Rome, he became so well-liked that in a summary of the history of Rome written in the IVth century he was called Amor et deliciae humani generis (love and delight of mankind).
Titus continued the policy of his father and named his brother Domitian consors successorsque (consort - in the sense of associate - and successor).

Modern entrance to the archaeological area of the Esquilino (Colle Oppio); immediately after the entrance there is a wall belonging to Terme di Tito

Titus carried on the construction of the Colosseo which was inaugurated in 80. The ceremonies were particularly solemn and the first season of the amphitheatre ran for a hundred consecutive days; the Romans watched munera (fights between gladiators), venationes (capture and killing of beasts) and naumachiae, a sort of naval battle (read Mark Twain's Coliseum playbill).
He also built public baths making use in part of those of Domus Aurea; of these baths very little is left: just a few low walls opposite the northern side of the Colosseo and in the adjoining archaeological park known as Colle Oppio (the southern peak of Esquilino). A few years later Emperor Trajan built larger baths, next to those of Titus.
In 81 the Senate dedicated an arch to Titus and to his deified father at the entrance to Circus Maximus. Titus died of natural causes in that same year. The triumphal arch in the Roman Forum dedicated to Titus and Vespasian was erected by Domitian after Titus was deified.

Domitian and the Consolidation of the Empire

Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty: he was killed as a result of a conspiracy; the Senate, some members of which had been involved in the conspiracy, decreed the damnatio memoriae of the emperor; later on Christian historians blamed him for one of the cruellest persecutions, so Domitian was seen for centuries as a junior Nero. Today we have a more balanced view, if not of him as a person, at least of his actions as a ruler.

Phaselis: detail of the agorà (forum) built by Domitian

He followed the steps of his father in paying attention to the economy: he managed to finance a vast program of public works, not only in Rome, but also in many other parts of the empire (e.g. at Gerasa, Hierapolis and Savaria), through a careful fiscal policy and by investigating financial mismanagements in the provinces.
From a military viewpoint Domitian's main worries came from the northern provinces of the empire; although he tried to gain glory by personally leading several campaigns in Germany and Pannonia, overall he was not interested in expanding the empire, but rather in consolidating its borders (a dedicatory inscription to him on a boulder near the Caspian Sea shore most likely testifies to a diplomatic, rather than military Roman presence); in Britain, he did not pursue the conquest of the whole island and started the construction of a defensive system; in Germany this approach led to the development of the limes (border) between the Rhine and the Danube, made of military roads, fortified camps, trenches and towers. Domitian was also involved in containing the raids of the Dacians, who threatened the Roman province of Mesia (today's Bulgaria). This change of purpose in the use of the military forces was accompanied by a change in their composition: a growing number of troops was recruited in the provinces and less and less Roman citizens were attracted by a military career which no longer rewarded its veterans by distributing land and booty.

Stadio di Domiziano (today's Piazza Navona): (left) one of the entrances and (right) inner passages

Domitian launched a Roman alternative to the Olympic games: the Certamen Capitolinum (certamen = competition) took place every four years and to properly house these games Domitian built a stadium which was inaugurated in 86. The arena corresponds to today's Piazza Navona, while the structures of the seating section lie inside or under the buildings around the Piazza. One of the external travertine arches and some of the walls supporting the seating section can be seen inside a modern building in the northern part of the Piazza. Domitian moved to this stadium the staging of naumachiae from the Colosseo, where he built the underground facilities which made the appearance of the beasts even more spectacular. The Certamen Capitolinum was accompanied by theatre plays and poetry competitions: they took place in an odeon Domitian built next to the stadium: the external walls of the odeon influenced the shape of Palazzo Massimi alle Colonne. He also took care of restoring four old temples near the Stadium.

Musei Vaticani: relief from the Mausoleum of the Haterii along Via Labicana depicting monuments built or completed/repaired by Domitian: (left to right): Arch at the entrance to Iseo Campense; Colosseo; perhaps the arch of Titus; another large arch at the top of Via Sacra; a temple dedicated to Jupiter Tonans (the Thunderer), according to Rodolfo Lanciani that on Campidoglio. The Haterii were a family of building contractors who were involved in the construction of many monuments during the Flavian period

Domitian's End

Domitian pursued a constant policy of concentrating power in his own hands and in that of his inner circle, whose members were the only ones admitted to his presence. This attitude created a growing resentment among the senators. Domitian wanted to be regarded as dominus and deus (lord and god); he promoted the cult of Jupiter and Minerva, placing them well above the crowd of deities of the traditional Roman mythology, and he tried to assume the same religious role the Pharaohs had with respect to Osiris and Isis in Egypt. He was especially devoted to Isis (see a temple to the goddess at Benevento).
He imposed strict moral standards which resulted in making him less and less well-liked. He ended by being very isolated in Domus Flavia, the addition to the imperial palace he built on the Palatine.

Musei Capitolini: Exhibits at a 2022 temporary exhibition on Emperor Domitian: (left) Genius of Domitian (found at Villa Altieri); (centre) young satyr watching his tail from the Palatine; (right) "Fonseca bust" portrait of an unknown lady of the time of Domitian

The many courtiers who surrounded Domitian often accused each other of plotting against the emperor and eventually in 96 a group of them (which included his first wife), fearing to be the next victims of Domitian's anger, decided to kill him. One of the conjurors claimed to have a broken arm and for some days went around in the palace with a bandage on it: he asked the emperor for a private meeting as he had to tell him about yet another plot: once alone with Domitian he took out a dagger from the bandages and he stabbed him; Domitian had enough strength to react and call for help, but his servants were part of the conspiracy and they finished him.

Foro di Nerva: details of its decoration and a broken column

Domitian dedicated to Minerva the forum he built to allow an easier transit between those of Caesar and Augustus and Templum Pacis, the portico built by his father. For this reason it is called Foro transitorio, although it is best known as Foro di Nerva, after the name of Diocletian's successor Nerva who inaugurated it in 97. It had an elongated shape: a temple dedicated to Minerva stood at the centre of a square which was surrounded by a wall decorated with columns and reliefs showing either the goddess or female activities under her protection. The surviving part of the temple was pulled down by Pope Paul V to make use of its columns and marbles for Acqua Paola, while a small section of the external wall, known as Le Colonnacce, is still in its original place.

Iconography

The following links show works of art portraying characters and events mentioned in this page; they open in another window:
Triumph of Vespasian and Titus by Giulio Romano (1499-1546)
The last day of Pompei by Karl Bryullov (1833)

Next page:
IX - From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius

Previous pages:
I - The Foundation and the Early Days of Rome
II - The Early Republican Period
III - The Romans Meet the Elephants
IV - Expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea
V - Pompey and Caesar
VI - Augustus
VII - From Tiberius to Nero